[
J Proteomics,
2010]
Much of our knowledge on heredity, development, physiology and the underlying cellular and molecular processes is derived from the studies of model, or reference, organisms. Despite the great variety of life, a common base of shared principles could be extracted by studying a few life forms, selected based on their amenability to experimental studies. Very briefly, the origins of a few model organisms are described, including E. coli, yeast, C. elegans, Drosophila, Xenopus, zebrafish, mouse, maize and Arabidopsis. These model organisms were chosen because of their importance and wide use, which made them systems of choice for genome-wide studies. Many of their genomes were between the first to be fully sequenced, opening unprecedented opportunities for large-scale transcriptomics and proteomics studies.
[
Mech Ageing Dev,
2018]
Past investigations have shown that various plant extracts are capable of promoting longevity in lower model organisms like Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila melanogaster, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Bombyx mori etc. Longevity studies on such organisms provide a foundation to explore anti-aging efficacies of such plant extracts in higher organisms. Plant extracts of acai palm, apple, asparagus, blueberry, cinnamon, cocoa, Damnacanthus, maize, mistletoe, peach, pomegranate, Rhodiola, rose, Sasa, turmeric, and Withania have extended lifespan in lower model organisms via diverse mechanisms like insulin like growth factor (IGF) signaling pathway, and antioxidant defense mechanisms. Knowledge of pathways altered by the extracts can be investigated as potential drug-targets for natural anti-aging interventions. Thus, the aim of the review is to scrutinize longevity promoting efficacies of various plant extracts in lower model organisms.
[
Semin Cell Dev Biol,
2015]
Paramutation was initially described in maize and was defined as an epigenetic interaction between two alleles of a locus, through which one allele induces a heritable modification of the other allele without modifying the DNA sequence [1,2]. Thus it implies that the paramutated allele conserves its new properties on the long term over generations even in the absence of the paramutagenic allele and that it turns paramutagenic itself, without undergoing any changes in the DNA sequence. Some epigenetic interactions have been described in two non-vertebrate animal models, which appear to exhibit similar properties. Both systems are linked to trans-generational transmission of non-coding small RNAs. In Drosophila melanogaster, paramutation is correlated with transmission of PIWI-Interacting RNAs (piRNAs), a class of small non-coding RNAs that repress mobile DNA in the germline. A tandem repeated transgenic locus producing abundant ovarian piRNAs can activate piRNA production and associated homology-dependent silencing at a locus that was previously stably devoid of such capacities. The newly converted locus is then perfectly stable in absence of the inducer locus (>100 generations) and becomes fully paramutagenic. In Caenorhabditis elegans, paramutation is correlated with transmission of siRNAs, which are produced by transgenes targeted by piRNAs in the germline. Indeed, a transgenic locus, targeted by the piRNA machinery, produces siRNAs that can induce silencing of homologous transgenes, which can be further transmitted in a repressed state over generations despite the absence of the inducer transgenic locus. As in fly, the paramutated locus can become fully paramutagenic, and paramutation can be mediated by cytoplasmic inheritance without transmission of the paramutagenic locus itself. Nevertheless, in contrast to flies where the induction is only maternally inherited, both parents can transmit it in worms. In addition, a reciprocal phenomenon - (from off toward on) - appears to be also possible in worms as some activated transgenes can reactivate silent transgenes in the germline, and this modification can also be transmitted to next generations, even so it appears to be only partially stable. Thus, in a given system, opposite paramutation-like phenomena could exist, mediated by antagonist active pathways. As in plants, paramutation in flies and worms correlates with chromatin structure modification of the paramutated locus. In flies, inheritance of small RNAs from one generation to the next transmits a memory mainly targeting loci for repression whereas in worms, small RNAs can target loci either for repression or expression. Nevertheless, in the two species, paramutation can play an important role in the epigenome establishment.